SENSORY AND MEAT QUALITY, OPTIMIZATION OF

M. Dikeman , C.Due east. Devine , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, 2004

Genetics

Genetic backdrop of animals are important for obtaining the right characteristics for diverse production situations. Angus, Red Angus, Shorthorn and Due south Devon cattle, and Duroc and Berkshire swine breeds, are best for high marbling. Animals with a Bos indicus content (≥1/2) accept a tendency for less tender meat in some muscle. Hindsaddle muscles of callipyge sheep are less tender than those of normal sheep. Hampshire swine have tender meat merely a lower h2o-holding chapters. Charolais or Simmental × Angus or Blood-red Angus crosses optimize composition and meat quality in some situations. Heritability of tenderness in cattle is approximately 0.thirty, and of marbling approximately 0.five. Expected progeny differences for tenderness have been published past some breed associations in the United States.

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SENSORY AND MEAT QUALITY, OPTIMIZATION OF

M. Dikeman , C.East. Devine , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (2d Edition), 2014

Genetics

Genetic properties of animals are important for obtaining the right characteristics for various product situations. Angus, Red Angus, Shorthorn and South Devon cattle, and Duroc and Berkshire swine breeds are best for high marbling. Animals with a Bos indicus content (=l%) take generally less tender meat in most major muscles. However, with good electric stimulation, these differences are less significant. Hindsaddle muscles of callipyge sheep are much less tender than those of normal sheep. Hampshire swine have tender meat but a lower water-holding capacity because of the Napole factor. Charolais or Simmental × Angus or Carmine Angus crosses of cattle optimize composition and meat quality. Heritability of tenderness and of marbling in cattle is approximately 0.twoscore and 0.50, respectively. Expected progeny differences for tenderness (measured by Warner–Bratzler shear forcefulness) take been published by some breed associations in the US. There are now commercially bachelor genetic markers for beef and swine for quality traits. Inside the beef manufacture, genetic markers for marbling and tenderness can exist used. For swine, genetic markers for the Napole gene, the Halothane gene, and marbling are bachelor.

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Growth curves and growth patterns

Steven Grand. Lonergan , ... Dennis North. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019

An Example of Filigree Marketing

This Grid Marketing example is a cooperative program between the JBS Swift Packing Company, the Simmental Association, and the Blood-red Angus Clan of America. It is oftentimes referred to every bit the 70  ×   70 Grid every bit it promotes the marketing of cattle from the feedlot when 70% of the cattle course USDA Pick and seventy% of the cattle accept a Yield form of 1 or 2. A Grid used in this type of program is shown in Fig. 6.44.

Fig. 6.44

Fig. half-dozen.44. An example of a 70   ×   70 Marketing Filigree for feedlot cattle.

 Courtesy, Dr. Gene Rouse.

The management of the JBS Swift Visitor makes this Grid Marketing Plan bachelor to cattle feeders that purchase feeder calves that are age and source verified. The Simmental and Cherry Angus Associations piece of work with the commercial cow-dogie producers that sell their cattle to the cooperating feedlots. Representatives of the Simmental and Cerise Angus Associations verify the age and source of the cattle. The Association representatives place tags in the ears of the feeder calves when they are still office of the commercial cow-calf herd. To receive an ear tag from the Brood Associations, the feeder calves had to be sired by a Simmental or Cherry Angus Bull that has good potential for marbling deposition and a low amount of waste fat in their offspring. The ear tags stay with the feeder calves until they are harvested by the packing company.

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Reproductive and Maternal Behavior of Livestock

Peter J. Chenoweth , ... Cornelia Flöercke , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014

Cattle Maternal Behavior

Cows in free-ranging herds are reported to go out the herd for calving, although this is understandably less common in more intensive pasture systems. Scarlet Angus cattle appear to show a considerable degree of behavioral plasticity in calving behavior and calf defense patterns when approached past a foreign object (e.g., a vehicle that differed from the familiar trucks on the ranch) ( Floercke et al., 2012). In postal service-parturient cows, private differences in protection-, aggression-, and vocalization-behaviors towards the newborn calf be when cows are approached by a vehicle. In the onetime study, 99% of cows were protective, 13% showed signs of aggression past lowering the head or pawing the ground and 78% vocalized towards the calf. The expression of these behaviors reflects individual differences in temperament and cows also differed in the level of "vigilance" towards the environs. Important criteria for selection of a birthing site include dry, soft bedding with provision of cover. Further influencing factors are the availability of nutrition, type of terrain, threat of predation, and the demand for bonding with the calf.

The time of day at which most births occur varies in different reports. Edwards (1979) found no bias towards day or dark calving whereas Keyserlingk and Weary (2007) reported increased calving in the late afternoon and evening; notwithstanding both findings may but reverberate routine management practices. Females bond with their newborn very early in the postpartum period and this sensitive period between mother and immature is triggered by amniotic fluids (Gonyou and Stookey, 1987; Lévy and Keller, 2009) and hormonal changes in the brain of the dam (Nowak et al., 2000). Cattle have been described as a "hider" species as there is a preference for secretion of the young. This time of separation from the herd varies from a few hours to upwardly to several days later nativity. During this time the mother grazes within hearing altitude and returns regularly to the calf (Langbein and Raasch, 2000). Older calves may be left nether the watchful eye of a "nanny" moo-cow nether extensive conditions, with this behavior beingness particularly observed in Bos indicus breeds.

Big individual differences have been observed to occur in calving beliefs during the perinatal period (Kunowska-Slósarz and Różańska, 2009). All the same, brood differences were also reported in a written report by Le Neindre (1989) in which maternal beliefs exhibited by a beef brood (Salers) was more intense than that shown past a dairy breed (Friesian). It has also been observed that beef females tend to leave the herd at calving more than readily than dairy females (Lidfors et al., 1994). Dairy cattle have been selected for less intense maternal behavior than beef breeds, in which stiff maternal behavior is valued (Le Neindre, 1989).

Recently, extensive beef systems in Northward America have been facing the claiming of increased predation loss by wolves (Bangs and Fritts, 1996; Clark and Johnson, 2009), blackness vultures, and gold eagles (Avery and Cummings, 2004). Selection since the tardily 1990s towards calmer temperament cattle (Hyde, 2010) may have reduced maternal protectiveness. Ranchers have reported mothering problems and maternal neglect in very calm females resulting in weak calves and calf starvation (Sime and Bangs, 2010). Females of Bos indicus breeds are generally regarded as being strongly protective mothers, an observation supported past Williams et al. (1991), who reported a straight positive condiment genetic influence for weaning rate of calves in Brahmans. In Red Angus cows, individual differences in protectiveness towards the calf take been found (Floercke et al., 2012). The hair whorl pattern located high on the forehead may exist used equally an indicator for selection towards more reactive cattle (Grandin et al., 1995). Selection for superior maternal ability in regions with high predation force per unit area could take advantages for ranchers. Temperament score at calving, a supposed indicator of maternal ability, was shown to differ amidst beef breeds in New Zealand. Heritabilities for behavioral traits were generally low (Morris et al., 1994). Nonetheless, a German study showed that Angus cows were more protective than Simmentals (Hoppe et al., 2008) although maternal protective beliefs was not associated with weight gain of the offspring. From a production standpoint, strong maternal protective behavior may have less importance in highly intensive systems with few predators, such as Frg, than in more extensive areas in which predation is common. Terminal, an important correspondent to dogie losses in Bos indicus (east.chiliad., Guzerat) cattle is the development of oversized or "boule" teats in dams which hinder suckling (Frisch, 1982; Holroyd, 1987; Schmidek et al., 2008).

Another of import cause of Bos indicus calf losses is the neonatal weakness syndrome (also known equally "weak dogie" and "dummy calf" syndrome) which is associated with high morbidity and mortality in young Bos indicus calves (DeRouen et al., 1967; Franke et al., 1975; Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2004c; Radostits et al., 1994). Affected calves show clinical signs which include poor cognitive and sensory responses, poor or absent-minded suckling power, difficulty in standing and movement and marked intolerance to common cold weather (encounter review by Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2002b). Although similar symptoms occur in Bos taurus calves, the relatively loftier occurrence of this syndrome in Bos indicus cattle in general, as well as its association with certain sires and breed types, suggests a genetic association (Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2004b; Rowan, 1992). More recently, a congenital myasthenic syndrome acquired by homozigosity for xx base pair deletion in the CHRNE gene (CHRNE 470del20) was identified in Brahman cattle in South Africa. The CHRNE 470del20 leads to a non-functional acetylcholine receptor causing progressive musculus weakness and mortality in young calves (Thompson et al., 2003, 2007). Rapid progress in defining cattle genetic traits tin can exist expected in association with the complete sequencing of the bovine genome (Elsick et al., 2009) which should ultimately permit genetic modification and enhanced selection for desired traits, such as improved maternal power, while ensuring other favorable traits are non compromised.

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Genetics and Behavior During Handling, Restraint, and Herding

Temple Grandin , Marker J. Deesing , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014

Hair Whorl Tiptop and Vigilance

Animals with hair whorls located high on the forehead may have high nervous system reactivity, increased fright and emotionality, highly astute senses, stronger orienting responses, and vigilance. A low hair whorl may exist related to reduced vigilance and a reduced reactivity and fear. Florcke et al. (2012) observed that Reddish Angus beef cows with high hair whorls were more vigilant when their newborn calf was threatened by an budgeted vehicle. Cows looked upwards and oriented towards the vehicle when at a greater altitude compared to cows with lower hair whorls. In Brazil, cattle with high pilus whorls above the eye exited more apace from a restraining chute Bueno Ribeiro et al. (2012), and struggled more than in a scale. Brazilian cattle accept had much less intensive option for temperament.

In cattle and horses, fine-boned, slender-bodied animals accept a highly reactive temperament, a high pilus roll, and are more probable to have an explosive reaction when suddenly confronted with a novel stimulus that moves suddenly. Heavy-boned, muscular animals are more likely to accept a at-home temperament and a depression hair whorl. Holstein dairy cows lack heavy muscling simply fit the above criteria because they are heavy boned. Nosotros began to speculate about two separate genetic mechanisms influencing temperament afterwards the first author visited the Lasater Beefmaster herd in 1996. Lasater's cattle been airtight to new genetics for threescore years, and subjected to a unique set up of option pressures. Lasater (1972) selected his cattle using the natural principle of survival of the fittest. Heifers unable to requite birth unassisted or to protect their calf from coyotes were culled. However, Lasater wanted commercially useful cattle so he also selected for temperament and carcass traits. The Beefmaster's breed is half Brahman, quarter Hereford, and quarter Shorthorn. Heifer's calves were selected as herd replacements if they willingly ate a nutrient treat off a stick held past a seated person. Tom Lasater's son Dale explained how they selected for temperament. Instead of using sudden aversive novelty (such every bit restraint) every bit a temperament test, they assessed temperament of hungry, newly weaned calves by sitting in the pen with them. Calves that failed to consume from a person'south hand after two days were culled. When the herd was first started, about a quarter of the calves were culled. Today but i% are culled for temperament (Dale Lasater, personal communication, 1996).

Lasater's choice criteria resulted in cows that are very protective of their calves, but extremely tame and seek contact with people. It is unusual to detect range cows that volition come up up and lick people and will stand up still while being scratched and petted. Information technology is likely they are selected for low FEAR, high Intendance (maternal nurturing), and PANIC (separation distress). The appearance of these reddish dark-brown animals is striking. They are muscular and heavy boned with either high hair whorls on the brow or no pilus whorls.

Faure and Mills (Chapter 8) demonstrated that the traits of fright and social reinstatement are genetically separate. Social reinstatement and PANIC (separation distress) are probably the aforementioned emotional system. In Japanese quail, social reinstatement is defined as the trend of an isolated bird to rejoin flockmates. In a wild population it is probable that both fear and high social reinstatement would appear naturally in the same animal considering this would improve survival. In domestic cattle, fearful animals bunch together tightly when excited. Tight bunching is probably motivated by high fright. Social reinstatement makes animals bond and is probably not motivated by fear. Faure and Mills showed that social reinstatement is carve up from fear because they were able to select and brood both low-fear and high-social reinstatement birds and vice versa.

A second grouping of cattle similar to the Lasater Beefmasters'due south were observed by the first author during a trip to England in 2012. The cattle were Limousin×Devon cross cows that were very docile. They allowed strange people to approach them out on pasture, even though they had immature calves. The cows were attentive to their calves and vocalized to call them as soon as they saw a strange tractor towing a trailer full of people inbound the pasture. Nearly of the pilus whorls on the cows were slightly above the eyes and no animals with extremely low whorls were observed. The cows were heavy boned yet extremely curious and speedily approached and touched the novel tractor. Fifty-fifty though heavy boned, their nervous system was vigilant. When I jumped off the trailer, near of the cows flinched but did not run away. The authors speculate that the combination of Devon genetics and Limousin had reduced FEAR, and produced animals that were high SEEKING, high PANIC (separation distress), and high CARE (maternal nurturing). Devons are bred to exist docile and some farmers report they may push other cattle abroad from resource such as feed troughs. Possibly Limoisin genetics helped to maintain the vigilance trait.

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Advances in Genetics

Wenfang (Spring) Tan , ... Perry B. Hackett , in Advances in Genetics, 2012

three.1 Rapid Allele Introgression for Improvement of Food Animals

In that location are numerous livestock breeds that have been extensively selected for a specialized set of traits, i.e. milk yield and limerick, meat yield and composition, growth rate, thermotolerance, affliction and parasite resistance, etc. Ofttimes, alleles that would do good a particular breed are nowadays within the species but exist just in undeveloped breeds or breeds that take historically been selected for traits that differ to those that are of priority in the target breed (e.g. meat vs. milk production). TALEN-based gene conversion may provide an opportunity for transferring beneficial alleles between animals/breeds without disrupting the improved genetic architectures accomplished by long-term pick within these breeds. However, traits for which only a few loci account for a large proportion of the observed genetic variance are clearly more attractive targets for this technology (Casas et al., 1999; Grisart et al., 2002) than traits for which a large number of loci contribute but small-scale magnitudes of effect (Cole et al., 2009; Kemper, Visscher, & Goddard, 2012), such as those that announced to predominate for complex traits.

The example presented in Figure 7 is of item interest. Holstein cattles accept been extensively selected for high milk yield and milk quality. Unfortunately, the great majority of both male and female Holsteins develop horns. To protect the welfare of both dairy farm operators and the cattle themselves, horns are routinely manually removed from the majority of Holstein cattle. Mechanical de-horning is painful, elicits a temporary top in animal stress, and adds expense to animal production (Graf & Senn, 1999 ), and despite the intent of protecting animals from subsequent injury, the practice is viewed by some as inhumane. In contrast, several breeds (e.g., Red Angus, specialized for loftier quality/yield meat) are naturally horn gratis, a trait referred to every bit polled ( Fig. vii). The polled trait follows a ascendant inheritance pattern (Long & Gregory, 1978) and multiple groups are making progress on identifying the causative mutation (Seichter et al., 2012; J. Taylor, personal communication).

Figure seven. Rapid allele introgression in livestock.

A) The diagram contrasts introgression of desired alleles (polled allele to horned animals) by crossbreeding (panel B) versus TALEN-mediated gene conversion (panel C). Beef and dairy breeds are selected for divergent classes of traits resulting in genetic merit selected for production of meat or milk, respectively. The accumulation of these traits is referred to as the genetic merit of each animal. Crossbreeding mixes these traits, which would result in animals that would not be ideal for either milk or meat production. The trait-selected genome architecture of these animals is conflicted past meiotic contamination, which would require about eight generations of selection to recover the original genetic merit. Panel C shows how TALEN-mediated gene conversion is able to transfer just a desired trait from beef cattle into dairy breeds. In this case, TALENs generate a double-strand DNA break at the horned-polled locus that tin be repaired past a homologous template carrying the polled allele from a polled beef breed, e.chiliad., Crimson Angus. The resulting fauna will exist both free of horns and maintain the original genetic architecture and merit for milk product. For color version of this effigy, the reader is referred to the online version of this volume.

Introgression of the polled allele into horned breeds could hands be accomplished by crossbreeding (Fig. 7B); nevertheless, the total genetic merit for milk product in the crossbred animals would dramatically suffer. Furthermore, meiotic recombination would mix alleles influencing beef and milk production traits in each crossbred beast that would require numerous generations of backcrossing and intensive genome-wide, mark-assisted selection to recover the original level of quality milk production. During the same menstruum, continued selection for milk production alone within the purebred Holstein population would have created genetic improvement that could never exist recovered in the graded-upward polled Holstein population. Thus, the inability to transfer a distinct allele from ane breed to another translates to meaning temporal and economic losses due to the long generation intervals in livestock. However, our results demonstrate that TALEN-mediated homologous recombination tin be used to direct efficient allelic introgression in livestock without contagion of untargeted sequences and/or introduction of undesirable traits (authors, unpublished). In the specific case of the polled trait, once the responsible locus is identified, TALEN-mediated homologous recombination could in theory be used to introduce only the polled allele without meiotic contamination (or allelic diffusion) (Fig. sevenC). The resulting animals would both lack horns and retain their high genetic merit for milk production.

There are numerous additional examples where TALEN-mediated allelic introgression could benefit animal agriculture. As previously mentioned for humans, each genome harbors 200–300 lacking/broken genes in both heterozygous (the majority) and homozygous states. The fact that putative LOF alleles are observed in homozygous states indicates that many of these loci are non lethals, possibly due to functional redundancy with other genes. However, inside each private about seven of these loci are early on developmental lethal and many of the others are likely to have deleterious furnishings on animal productivity and these loci are excellent targets for repair using TALEN-mediated allelic correction. Oft, while desired alleles are being accumulated through selection, closely linked defective alleles are perpetuated and even enriched within a population. Causative mutations for at least 62 disease loci have now been determined in cattle and are cataloged at OMIA (http://omia.angis.org.au/home/) (Table vi). Recently, several haplotypes were discovered that affect the fertility in mutual dairy breeds of cattle including Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Jersey (VanRaden, Olson, Null, & Hutchison, 2011). These haplotypes were identified due to their lack of occurrence in the homozygous state, despite their significant frequency in the population (4.v–25% carriers), which suggests that the homozygous haplotype results in lethality. Given the frequency of predicted LOF alleles from sequence surveys, more than examples like this will emerge.

Table 6. Identified mutations causing disease in cattle

OMIA entry Phenotype Cistron Mutation blazon Deviation
OMIA 000001   -   9913 Abortion APAF1 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001565   -   9913 Abortion and stillbirth MIMT1 ~110 kB deletion
OMIA 000593   -   9913 Acrodermatitis enteropathica SLC39A4 SNP Splice site
OMIA 000543   -   9913 Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia EDA SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001541   -   9913 Arachnomelia BTA23 MOCS1 ii nt deletion Frameshift
OMIA 000059   -   9913 Arachnomelia BTA5 SUOX ane nt INS Frameshift
OMIA 001465   -   9913 Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita ISG15 ~233 kB deletion
OMIA 001106   -   9913 Axonopathy MFN2 SNP Splice site
OMIA 001437   -   9913 Beta-lactoglobulin aberrant low expression PAEP SNP Enhancer
OMIA 000151   -   9913 Brachyspina FANCI 3.iii kB Deletion
OMIA 000161   -   9913 Cardiomyopathy and woolly haircoat syndrome PPP1R13L 7 bp duplication Frameshift
OMIA 000162   -   9913 Cardiomyopathy dilated OPA3 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 000185   -   9913 Chediak–Higashi syndrome LYST SNP Nonsense
OMIA 000187   -   9913 Chondrodysplasia EVC2 SNP and i bp deletion Splice site and frameshift
OMIA 000194   -   9913 Citrullinaemia ASS1 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001340   -   9913 Complex vertebral malformation SLC35A3 SNP Missense
OMIA 001450   -   9913 Congenital muscular dystonia one ATP2A1 SNP Missense
OMIA 001451   -   9913 Congenital muscular dystonia two SLC6A5 SNP Missense
OMIA 000262   -   9913 Deficiency of uridine monophosphate synthase UMPS SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001680   -   9913 Dominant white with bilateral deafness MITF SNP Missense
OMIA 001485   -   9913 Dwarfism Angus PRKG2 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001271   -   9913 Dwarfism Dexter ACAN 4 bp INS or SNP Frameshift
OMIA 001473   -   9913 Dwarfism growth hormone deficiency GH1 SNP Missense
OMIA 001686   -   9913 Dwarfism proportionate with inflammatory lesions RNF11 SNP Splice site
OMIA 000327   -   9913 Ehlers–Danlos syndrome EPYC SNP Missense
OMIA 000328   -   9913 Ehlers–Danlos syndrome blazon VII (dermatosparaxis) ADAMTS2 17 bp deletion
OMIA 000340   -   9913 Epidermolysis bullosa KRT5 SNP Missense
OMIA 000363   -   9913 Factor XI deficiency F11 76 bp insertion
OMIA 000419   -   9913 Glycogen storage disease II GAA SNPs Nonsense and missense
OMIA 001139   -   9913 Glycogen storage disease 5 PYGM SNP Missense
OMIA 000424   -   9913 Goitre familial TG SNP Nonsense
OMIA 000437   -   9913 Haemophilia A F8 SNP Missense
OMIA 000540   -   9913 Hypotrichosis HEPHL1 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001544   -   9913 Hypotrichosis with coat-color dilution PMEL three bp deletion
OMIA 000547   -   9913 Ichthyosis congenita ABCA12 SNP Missense
OMIA 000595   -   9913 Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I ITGB2 SNP Missense
OMIA 000625   -   9913 Mannosidosis alpha MAN2B1 SNPs Missense
OMIA 000626   -   9913 Mannosidosis beta MANBA SNP Nonsense
OMIA 000627   -   9913 Maple syrup urine affliction BCKDHA SNPs Nonsense
OMIA 000628   -   9913 Marfan syndrome FBN1 SNPs Missense and splice site
OMIA 001342   -   9913 Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB NAGLU SNP Missense
OMIA 000733   -   9913 Multiple ocular defects WFDC1 1 bp INS Frameshift
OMIA 000683   -   9913 Muscular hypertrophy (double muscling) MSTN Numerous SNPs, 11 bp deletion, 10 bp INS
OMIA 000685   -   9913 Myasthenic syndrome built CHRNE xx bp deletion
OMIA 000689   -   9913 Myoclonus GLRA1 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001319   -   9913 Myopathy of the diaphragmatic muscles HSPA1A 11 kb deletion
OMIA 001482   -   9913 Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 5 CLN5 1 bp duplication Frameshift
OMIA 000755   -   9913 Osteopetrosis SLC4A2 2.8 kb deletion
OMIA 000836   -   9913 Protoporphyria FECH SNP Stoploss
OMIA 001464   -   9913 Pseudomyotonia congenital ATP2A1 SNP Missense
OMIA 001135   -   9913 Renal dysplasia CLDN16 37 kb or 56 kb deletion
OMIA 001593   -   9913 Scurs type ii TWIST1 x bp duplication
OMIA 001230   -   9913 Sexual activity reversal: XY female SRY Large Deletion
OMIA 001228   -   9913 Spherocytosis SLC4A1 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001247   -   9913 Spinal dysmyelination SPAST SNP Missense
OMIA 000939   -   9913 Spinal muscular atrophy KDSR SNP Missense
OMIA 000963   -   9913 Syndactyly (mule foot) LRP4 SNP or 2 bp replacement Splice site or missense
OMIA 001452   -   9913 Tail crooked MRC2 ii bp deletion or SNP Nonsense or missense
OMIA 001003   -   9913 Thrombopathia RASGRP2 SNP Missense
OMIA 001009   -   9913 Tibial hemimelia ALX4 45.7 kb deletion
OMIA 001360   -   9913 Trimethylaminuria FMO3 SNP Nonsense
OMIA 001079   -   9913 Yellow fat BCO2 SNP Nonsense

Management of known disease alleles has traditionally relied on the culling of carriers via marker-assisted elimination from genetic improvement programs. However, given the frequency of such alleles within the population, it seems likely that selection programs will exist confounded by linkage disequilibrium betwixt LOF and benign alleles. We propose that under these circumstances, the confounding genetic defects may be candidates for correction by TALEN-mediated gene conversion. Indeed, of the 75 mutations for the 62 cattle disease loci described in Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals website (http://omia.angis.org.au/home/), 87% are either SNPs or small indels of less than 20 bp (Table 6), which are highly likely to be amenable to homology directed allelic correction. Such targetable loci will likely predominate as suggested by deep sequence surveys of numerous species.

Correction either of genetic lesions or the introgression of desirable alleles into livestock must exist consistent with the objectives of ongoing genetic comeback programs. This could be achieved past either (1) editing the genomes of animals previously determined to be of significant genetic value or (2) editing the genomes of animals prior to determining their implicit genetic value (Fig. 8). In the instance of cloning (Fig 8A), factor-editing would need to be implemented sufficiently quickly to keep pace with ongoing genetic improvement programs. The awarding of genomic selection is already accelerating genetic improvement by allowing the estimation of genetic merit without the requirement of functioning testing. In theory, genetically superior newborn animals could immediately be identified and subjected to gene editing for the correction of an LOF allele or the introgression of desirable alleles that are non already present. This arroyo provides for a controlled and characterized upshot at every stride of the process. Theoretically, there are no limitations in the types and numbers of edits that can be fabricated. Alternatively, since embryo transfer is already role of the genetic improvement paradigm for some livestock (e.g., cattle), editing could be applied by the straight handling of embryos (Fig 8B). The efficiency of such modifications would need to be sufficiently high to beginning whatever losses in reproductive rate engendered past embryo treatment. In the example of uncomplicated factor inactivation, the frequency of success is already very high (75%), with even homozygous modification in x–20% of embryos (Carlson, Tan, et al., in press). More than sophisticated edits have withal to exist tested in livestock embryos, but results with ZFNs in mice, rats, and rabbits (Carbery et al., 2010; Flisikowska et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 2010) and with TALENs in zebra fish (Huang et al., 2011; Sander, Cade, et al., 2011) and rodents (Tesson et al., 2011) advise that even template repair can reach pregnant frequencies in treated embryos. Furthermore, the apply of repair templates in clan with RecA-mediated sequence searching, alignment, and strand-invasion functions may further increase the number and frequency of gene-editing events in injected embryos. Moreover, precision genome editing can likewise be used to innovate alleles that exercise not currently exist within a species by homology-driven allelic substitution. Geneticists working with non-livestock species, east.g., humans, have identified candidate alleles with potential utility in subcontract animals. There are at present the possibilities to create livestock that tin be used for disease models likewise as enhance agricultural sustainability, nutrient safety, and security. At the current rate of improvement in efficiency, gene editing will be limited only by our imagination.

Figure viii. Strategies for implementation of allelic introgression. The introgression of desirable alleles into livestock could follow either a vertical (console A) or a horizontal (panel B) paradigm. (A) In the vertical image, allelic introgression would exist performed in cells derived from a donor individual(due south) with a high predictability of transmitting ability/estimated breeding value (PTA/EBV, denoted by a blue ribbon). One or several genetic heterozygous or homozygous allele conversions (genetic edits) could be made and verified (e.grand., past sequence assay) prior to cloning of an individual. The resulting beast would not only carry the edits but would also maintain the original PTA/EBV of the donor creature. This animal would exist entered back into the genetic comeback program and edits would exist selected in subsequent generations. (B) Horizontal implementation takes advantage of the fact that embryo transfer is routine in genetic comeback programs of some livestock species, due east.g., cattle. Zygotes produced from animals with loftier PTA/EBV could exist injected with TALENs plus repair templates corresponding to the desired alleles and implanted into a surrogate for establishment or pregnancy. Resulting offspring could be scored for high PTA/EBV and either the presence or the absenteeism of the targeted edits. Animals with loftier PTA/EBV would exist maintained in the genetic comeback program regardless of the edit condition, while animals with low PTA/EBV would be culled. Two potential improvements of this process tin be envisioned. (i) An embryo biopsy at the blastocysts stage could exist collected to evaluate the edit status or PTA/EBV so that merely edited and/or loftier PTA/EBV embryos would be implanted into surrogates. (ii) Fetal cells could be collected early on in pregnancy by amniocentesis for evaluation of the edit status or PTA/EBV. Low PTA/EBV or not-edited animals could exist culled prior to parturition. Development of these technologies could further accelerate the rate of livestock comeback. In contrast to the vertical image, allelic introgression and genetic improvement volition go on to occur in the horizontal epitome, thereby producing animals that would be i generation alee in terms of genetic improvement. This method could exist easily applied to generate numerous animals from multiple lines such that dissemination of converted alleles (genetic edits) would exist achieved rapidly inside a population with minimal hazard of inbreeding. For colour version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this volume.

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Beefiness Upwardly Your Tango - Meat Inquiry in Argentina

Alejandro Schor , ... Darío Colombatto , in Meat Science, 2008

5 Brood effect on carcass physical parameters and physical, chemical and nutritional aspects of Argentinean beef

Fumagalli et al. (2005) carried out a trial to examine the upshot of supplementing corn grain to steers from three racial types: Braford, Criollo and a cross betwixt a Bos indicus and Bos taurus, fattened on irrigated pastures for 381 days. Croaky corn grain was added during the terminal 100 days of the trial at two levels 0.6% and 1.2% live weight. There was no consequence (P>  0.05) of the diet   ×   breed interaction for carcass yield, but breed type was significant (P<  0.001), with the Criollo showing the lowest yield (57.5% vs. threescore.half dozen%). Braford animals showed higher subcutaneous fat depth and a tendency towards higher intramuscular fat content.

Altuve, Pourrain, Sampedro, Pizzio, and Carduza F.J. (2004) studied the differences in intramuscular fatty content and Warner Bratzler shear force in Braford or Brahman   ×   Hereford steers finished at pasture with 20 months of age (418   kg live weight) in two consecutive experiences. There was no difference in intramuscular fat content between breeds. Shear force values (5 days of ageing) were similar, suggesting that dissimilar proportions of Bos indicus would not affect the factors under written report.

Latimori et al. (2003) and Latimori et al. (2005) used Aberdeen Angus (AA), Charolais   ×   Angus crosses (CH   ×   AA) or Holstein (HA) steers fed on pasture with or without supplementation (0%, 0.7% and one% live weight) or in feedlot, to evaluate meat quality characteristics. Shear force values were not affected by brood (hateful   =   68.70   North, P>  0.05), but intramuscular fatty content was higher for AA than CH   ×   AA and HA. Cholesterol contents were higher (P<  0.05) for AA (45.3   mg/100   g) compared to CH   ×   AA and HA (hateful   =   43.2   mg/100   g). Saturated fat acrid proportion was lower in HA steers compared to AA and CH   ×   AA (37.1% vs. 39.4% for HA and the hateful of the other two, respectively), whereas the ω6:ω3 ratio did not testify differences. Finally, CLA concentrations were lowest in AA (0.50%) compared to the other ii breeds (hateful   =   0.57%). Latimori, Kloster, and Amigone (2001) examined five breed types of heavy steers (Ruby Angus, Charolais  ×   Angus, Fleckvieh   ×   Angus, Criollo   ×   Angus, and Holstein) under grazing conditions with corn grain supplementation (0.vii% live weight) all twelvemonth round with the exception of the december–february flow. All brood types exceeded 450 kg live weight at slaughter. Holstein steers showed the lowest yield (53.5% vs. 56.1–57.eight% for the other treatments) and SFA proportion (37.7% vs. xl.i–42.5%). They also showed the everyman rib eye area (58.ix cmtwo), with the Charolais   ×   Angus being the highest (72.1   cm2) and the rest of the treatments showing intermediate values (63.four–65.7   cm2). With respect to shear force, Red Angus and Holstein were the most tender (30.18   Due north), whereas Fleckvieh   ×   Angus resulted the toughest (38.22   N). Breed types evaluated did not differ in the rest of the quality parameters, which suggests that grazing conditions with moderate supplementation tin generate high quality meat.

In another series of studies, Villarreal, Santini, Faverín, Depetris, Paván, et al. (2005) and Villarreal, Santini, Paván, et al. (2005) evaluated the effect of diets varying in energy densities (ii.4 vs. 2.7 Mcal ME/kg DM) fed to Angus steers from contrasting frames (small   =   1–2, and large   =   4–5) from weaning (seven months of historic period) to slaughter (six mm of subcutaneous fat depth, determined by ultrasound). Animals from large frame showed higher cooking losses (21.6% vs. 15.seven%; P<  0.05), which were associated with their larger musculus content. Santini et al. (2005) analyzed the chemical characteristics of the meat from the animals used past Villarreal, Santini, Faverín, Depetris, Paván, et al. (2005) and Villarreal, Faverín, et al. (2005) constitute that those animals of minor frame, fed on high energy nutrition showed the lowest levels of MUFA (45.9%), highest PUFA (9.0%), ω3 (0.84%), ω6 (8.one%) and the highest PUFA:SFA ratio (0.2) with respect to the remainder of the treatments. Small frame combined with high free energy diets produced the largest alterations in fatty acids profile.

In another work from the same grouping, Villarreal et al. (2003) evaluated the same frames equally above unsupplemented or supplemented with whole ingather corn silage or high moisture corn grain but finished on pasture. They found that animals of large frame showed the everyman pH values (five.62 vs. 5.51, P<  0.01), the most tender meat (74.09 vs. 99.96   N, P  <   0.01), largest CLA and PUFA concentration (i.15% vs. 0.lxxx% and 8.92% vs. 5.72% for CLA and PUFA for big and small frame animals, respectively), and a lower SFA content (46.0% vs. 53.ii%, P  <   0.01) and ω6:ω3 ratio (3.23 vs. 4.23, P  <   0.09).

Pruzzo, Schindler, Abbiati, and Santa Coloma (2000) determined the relative importance of breed type (British, Continental, Bos indicus and Friesians crosses) on shear force of the Longissimus dorsi of steers and cows. Hateful shear strength values of Bos indicus (38.12   N) differed significantly from all others (32.14   N).

Latimori et al. (2000) evaluated the productive performance and meat quality of medium framed (4–6) steers from four genetic groups (Santa Gertrudis, SG; 3/4 Brangus   ×   Aberdeen Angus cross, B   ×   AA; Limousin   ×   Aberdeen Angus cantankerous, L   ×   AA; and Fleckvieh   ×   Hereford cross, F   ×   H), grazing alfalfa and tall fescue pastures with strategic corn grain supplementation. Fattening stage (i.eastward., weaning to slaughter) lasted 12 months, and animals were slaughtered with an boilerplate of 466 kg live weight. No differences (P>  0.05) in Warner Bratzler shear force (hateful   =   27.66   N), colour parameters (mean of L ∗  =   26.4, saturation index   =   17.43, Hunter Lab calibration), intramuscular fat (mean   =   2.87%) and cholesterol content (hateful   =   38.77   mg/100   thousand) were plant in Longissimus dorsi. Cholesterol levels were low, which was attributed to the depression relative values of intramuscular fat or other unexplained factors. Saturated fat acids contents showed differences (46.seven% vs. 43.4% for SG and F   ×   H, respectively, P<  0.05), and so did MUFA contents (36.9% vs. 41.4% for B   ×   AA and F   ×   H, respectively), just no differences were detected for PUFA (mean   =   seven.65%).

Bonsmara is a five/viii:three/8 combination of the Afrikaner (Bos taurus africanus) and Shorthorn/Hereford (Bos taurus taurus) introduced in Argentina before the year 2000. García and Lundqvist (2000) studied the composition of intramuscular (Longissimus dorsi) and subcutaneous lipids from Bonsmara (25 months old, 450   kg alive weight) steers fattened nether a traditional grazing system. The average intramuscular fatty content (one.9%) was similar or lower than British cattle fattened under like conditions (García & Castro Almeyra, 1992). Cholesterol content was also depression merely typical of very lean beef (39   mg/100   g). Likewise, the fatty acrid composition of Bonsmara (SFA   =   43.0%; MUFA   =   44.2%; PUFA   =   8.iv%) was similar to the fat acid composition of Angus steers with depression levels of intramuscular fat contents.

González et al. (2003) examined the shear forcefulness of pure Aberdeen Angus (A) and Hereford (H) steers, and their crosses with Bos indicus (B), (BA 1/4, BH 1/four, BA 3/eight and BH 3/8) fattened at pasture and slaughtered when they reached iv–8   mm subcutaneous fatty depth. No differences were detected in WB shear force values from the pure breeds (A and H, mean   =   82.32 Due north), the ane/4 crosses (mean   =   79.38   N) and the iii/8 crosses (84.28   N).

As a full general conclusion, breed blazon had a modest effect in terms of physical and nutritional parameters of meat. Different proportion of Bos indicus did non outcome in differences in intramuscular fat contents or shear force values, but when Bos indicus steers were compared to very different breed types (Pure British and Continental), their shear strength values were higher. Withal this volition depend on the proportion of Bos indicus in the cantankerous. When pure British breeds were compared to British   ×   Continental crosses, the former showed higher intramuscular fat contents, lower CLA content and higher saturated fatty acrid concentrations, without differences in the ω6:ω3 ratio and shear force values. When steers from contrasting frames were compared, only marginal, likely, non-biologically pregnant differences were observed.

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58th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (58th ICoMST)

C. Mapiye , ... K.E.R. Dugan , in Meat Science, 2012

half-dozen.iv Genetics, metabolism and ruminal influences

Genetic comeback programs work well when traits existence selected for have a corking bargain of variability amongst animals and are highly heritable. To date, differences in FA composition related to genetics reported are minor relative to the recommended daily intake for appreciable wellness benefits in humans. For example, based on consumption of a 100 g portion of meat, brood differences betwixt Simmental and Scarlet Angus ( Laborde, Mandell, Tosh, Wilton, & Buchanan-Smith, 2001) simply provided 3.0% of the recommended daily intake of n-3 PUFA, and 1.three% of the RA intake (iii   chiliad) considered necessary for cancer prevention in humans based on extrapolated animal data (Decker, 1995; Ip, Singh, Thompson, & Scimeca, 1994). Overall, information technology has been difficult to evaluate the actual contribution of genetics to variation in the FA limerick of meat due to confounding furnishings of live-weight, historic period, gender, carcass fatness and tissue type amongst other factors that affect lipid metabolism (De Smet, Raes, & Demeyer, 2004). Differences in FA limerick amongst breeds have, yet, been found when comparing breeds at the same carcass fatness, alive-weight, age and gender or by using these variables as covariates in the statistical analysis of information (Woods & Fearon, 2009). The gene for Δ-9 desaturase is mayhap the most studied, as it relates to marbling fatty degradation (Smith, Gill, Lunt, & Brooks, 2009), simply even for this diet and age effects appear to outweigh furnishings of genetics. Development of mark assisted selection may, however, be on the horizon for improvements in total intramuscular fatty content (Hocquette et al., 2010) and with this at that place may likewise be some potential for investigating improvements in fatty acid composition.

Differences amongst species provide a much greater source of variation in meat FA composition. Beef typically has a more than desirable n-six/n-three ratio, but a lower PUFA:SFA ratio compared to pork (Raes et al., 2004). A striking difference is also the presence of increased amounts of PUFA biohydrogenation intermediates in beef. Interestingly, PUFA biohydrogenation intermediates as well have the greatest coefficients of variation. In dairy cattle the rank society of biohydrogenation intermediates in milk remains consequent when diets are changed (Peterson, Kelsey, & Bauman, 2002), and product of enriched dairy products tin can be done by selecting milk from animals which yield high levels of biohydrogenation intermediates. A selection process such every bit this may likewise be possible for enriching biohydrogenation intermediates in beefiness by using red blood cell FA analysis (Aldai, Dugan, Rolland, & Aalhus, 2012). In support of this potential, levels of VA in kidney fat at slaughter when feeding steers a diet with 15% flaxseed take been establish to be straight related to rolling pre-slaughter monthly averages in cherry blood cells over the feeding period (Fig. 5; author unpublished results). Consequently, red blood cell measurements could exist used as a screening tool early in the feeding period, avoiding the need to feed high levels of oils, or oilseeds to animals that will not go enriched with biohydrogenation products. To our knowledge, however, heritability of PUFA biohydrogenation product accumulation in beef when feeding PUFA enriched diets has not been evaluated.

Fig. 5. t11-18:1 concentration in kidney fat of individual steers fed a lxx red clover:30 concentrate containing 15% ground flaxseed for 8   months, and rolling averages of the percentage of txi-18:one in total fatty acid methyl esters in red claret cells during the finishing period.

Differences in FA composition can originate from inter-animal variation in diet component choice, bite size, eating rate, quality and quantity of saliva produced, kinds and numbers of microbes, rumen environment, digesta retentiveness and passage rates, digestive efficiency and lipid metabolism (Hegarty, 2004). In this regard, future strategies for improving the FA composition of beefiness, and limiting its variation amongst animals, must accost how diet, creature management, physiology, and beliefs influence the rumen environment and microbial populations in private animals, and to what extent individual brute variation in lipid metabolism may also play a role. To this end, information technology will be of import to empathise the rumen environment, including potential regulators of PUFA metabolism pathways, and to characterize rumen ecology using high throughput molecular biology techniques (Duan, Guo, & Liu, 2006; Qi et al., 2011), and to extend studies looking at fundamental biochemical aspects of lipid metabolism on a species and tissue specific basis (Gruffat, Gobert, Durand, & Bauchart, 2011). Currently bachelor cost-effective molecular techniques utilized past either creature geneticists or rumen microbiologists, if focused on the agreement of inter-animal variation of FA composition, could aid in advancing in the product of FA enriched beef. Animal breeders, physiologists, biochemists, ethologists, and creature/microbial molecular geneticists can, therefore, play important roles in MLNs trying to produce FA enriched beef.

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